Advantages and Disadvantages of Effective Budget Control

Advantages and Disadvantages of Effective Budget Control This paper will look at what is required of an effective budgetary control mechanism and try to assess the advantages and disadvantages of using a system imposed from above, or externally, over a decentralized system controlled by lower level management as task level. Using an empirical case study from the international banking sector, it will be shown that too much managerial autonomy can lead to disaster not just for the manager concerned but also for the whole organization. In contrast the role of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund in imposing nation-state loan budgets will be critiqued to highlight the potential flaws of centralizing and dominating budget control management. Effective budgetary controlHenderson (2003) notes that regardless of the situation or workplace, in order to be effective it is crucial that budgetary control systems: Account for money received and spent Make sure that the organizations financial policies are adhered to Ensure that money is not wasted Assist managers to run, and develop, services or departments These controls have developed from the need to account for large sums of money but are equally applicable to any budgetary situation. However, from a managerial perspective they have often been criticised for being insensitive and restrictive at the lower levels of management. As the number of stakeholders increases so does the need to be fully accountable and therefore more controls are also needed. This is particularly noticeable in the public sector National Health Service. Here lower level management are extremely subservient to imposed and tight budgeting restrictions from a distantly senior level. This is arguably a result of the need to satisfy a multitude of stakeholder interests and a concern that empowering lower management with the autonomy to control their own budgets would fail to include the number of interested parties from politicians to doctors and patients. With organisations as complex as the NHS whether public or private sector – It is safer and easier to p lan and control from above using imposed budget control methods. Politically imposed budgeting is preferably because senior managers, directors, or institutions who set the budgets are arguably best placed to recognise the wider implications of budgeting decisions but, according to Marginson (1999), financially imposed budget controls make sense too. Financial losses, which can occur for such damaging reasons as incompetence, error, negligence or fraud, are most likely to be minimised, or avoided altogether, by well constructed control systems. Imposed budgets benefit from the experience, acquired knowledge and full backing of senior management. They arguably encourage a sense of confidence in lower level management to do their job whilst reducing the massive levels of stress that come with having to create and manage your own budget. Another advantage of imposed budgeting is that it encourages regular monitoring, reporting, progress reports and ultimately improvements in the budgetary system. This enables problems to be uncovered and dealt with quickly and efficiently. Henderson (2003) states that it is advantageous to review arrangements occasionally. Even if procedures within your work area operate well, you should ensure that the budgetary responsibilities of staff at all levels are clear and understood by everyone. It would be unfortunate if problems arise because people do not know the extent or limit of their responsibilities (p33). Autonomous managers are arguably less likely to self-review their processes if they are deemed to be working well. Whereas senior management may be able to employ the use of an external or dedicated process-auditing team, lower level management are unlikely to have the resources or inclination to do the same especially if a process is deemed to be largely successful and given that any negative results will reflect directly and negatively on their managerial budgeting ability. There are further problems with lower level management dictating their own budget. As a budget manager, you are in charge of producing an annual cash flow forecast detailing accurately all of your income and expenditures. Budget managers are also expected to collect a range of information throughout each year, both financial and non-financial, to supplement their cash flow predictions and help better manage their finances. Finally they are then expected to critically compare the planned figures and the actual revenues and expenditures that occurred and act to ensure that the inflows and outflows of cash are within budget limits. In short, managers who are given control over their own budgets are required to be financially adept. Often, even if the manager is financially confident, proof of budgetary ability will only be learned from success or failure by which time it may be too late to rectify any problems. Marginson (1999) suggests that the concept of self-managing a budget at all levels through an organization is essentially flawed. If a manager has responsibility for a budget they he argues should not be expected to regulate and monitor is on their own. Ideally a system would be in place to bring any relevant or potentially important information to the managers attention. The flaw of any budgeting system that encourages managerial autonomy is that, eventually, in the case of poor performance a reporting system will eventually alert senior management to the crisis. Inevitably, senior manage will then try to rectify the situation costing time, resources and money. This often lengthy process would almost certainly be entirely avoided if senior management imposed budgetary control measures tightly from the top. A potential hazard in using imposed budgetary controls Imposing financial authority from the top-down may be one method of ensuring that the commands of senior management (or external bodies such a the Government) are carried out but this strict system of financial control is not necessarily the most productive method of financial management. The most commonly cited problem with a top-down method of strict budgetary control is the message that it permeates down the hierarchy. This invariably is translated as a lack of trust in the ability of lower-level and middle-management from those above them. As Benston (1963) explains: Decentralization contributes to effective motivation. The firm’s accounting system that facilitates decentralization hence has an indirect but important impact on motivation. The direct use of accounting reports, such as budgets, for motivation can result in reduced performance, if the budget is imposed on the department manager. (p347) The financial advantages of imposing budgetary control – such as less risk of money being wasted, tighter adherence to company financial polity etc are potentially offset by the negative effects on motivation (and therefore productivity and profitability) such a gesture could make.According to Petrova (2004), autonomy and motivation are commonly considered to be extremely closely associated to one another. Given the value of a motivated workforce, the use of imposed budgets could be limiting the success of the business as well as its employees. Case Study:  Too much managerial autonomy – Nick Leeson and banking crises Over the last two decades crises the banking worldwide and the subsequent global financial instability they have invariably caused have occurred with alarming regularity and always at a huge, often crippling, cost. According to estimates by the International Monetary Fund, more than a dozen banking crises in the past 15 years have cost the countries afflicted 10% or more of their gross domestic product (Economist, 2003). Although the majority of banking collapses seem to occur in the less developed and therefore poorer nations of the world, rich countries are also susceptible, as Japan demonstrated before the world in the 1990s. The blame is frequently – and correctly – laid on macroeconomic policy: an unsustainable exchange rate has no doubt often exacerbated problems but it is poor budgetary control that has been at the root of the majority of banking crises in recent times.. It is not just the banks who are to blame for this. Imposed budgets do not necessarily have to come from within the organisation. Bank regulators, too, should have done, and should do, more to help avoid these crises. The Basel Accord is the main external control that is used to protect the financial safety of banks. The Accord established a set of international rules that limit banks exposure to risk by requiring that their capital must at least equal a minimum proportion of their assets (Economist, 2003). This proportion is weighted by a calculated risk based on the circumstances of each individual bank. The Basel Accord is effectively the banking industries version of imposed budgeting. The external regulator oversees the business of the banks to ensure that they do not assume too much autonomy. (Economist, 2003) The case of Nick Leeson and the collapse of Barings Banks provides a hugely unlikely yet extremely note-worthy case to act as a warning of what can happen to companies that do not impose strict financial controls on their management. As Van der Stede (2000) warns, this is especially pertinent for companies concerned with achieving tangible results as they are more likely to have managers with a stronger focus on business matters that affect the short-term results (p609) and are therefore more likely to take poorly calculated risks with company money. In the Leeson case the bank were found to be guilty of allowing an unprecedented degree of managerial influence in the trading budget. This eventually allowed just a single employee Leeson to accumulate debts of over  £1.3 billion and bankrupt one of the worlds oldest banks. In a fatal mistake, the bank allowed Leeson to remain Chief Trader while being responsible for settling his trades, a job that is usually split. This had made it much simpler for him to hide his losses. (BBC, 2002). If any case highlights the dangers of allowing managers unbridled participation in budgetary control, the Lesson case is it. Problems with imposed budgets a global political perspective. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund control the flow of finances and effectively national budgets in every country across the globe. Their role is to promote stable growth in a bid to increase the wealth of citizens across the globe. However, as recently as April 2005, hundreds of members of parliaments around the world are calling on these two institutions lenders of billions of dollars every year, – to renege many of the numerous conditions they impose on borrowing countries in order to secure their loans. These conditions, they say, are eroding national sovereignty and impeding long-term economic planning necessary to achieve positive and sustained growth. Instead, global politicians, most vocally from the less developing countries who are the primary victims of the current restrictive loan scheme, are calling for the World Bank and IMF to let local legislators have the final say in domestic economic policies. Typical IMF conditions imposed on lending nations include devaluation of local currencies, deregulation of state-owned industry, tight public spending caps, liberalisation of trade and exchange controls, withdrawal of subsidies, and more protections for the private sector and multinational companies (Mekay, 2005). Beyond this critics argue that both institutions have been guilty of providing inaccurate and detrimental economic advice that has only helped to compound the economic rigidities created by the loans causing delayed debt relief, increased poverty and undermined democracy, prompting demonstrations and street protests in many countries (Mekay, 2005). According to the petition, in 2003, the former Soviet state of Georgia’s budget deficit exceeded its IMF-set limit. The Fund then asked Georgia to revise its budget for that year, but the parliament refused to pass it. Rather than accepting this decision, the IMF allowed its lending programme with Georgia to expire in retaliation. This led to threats from the World Bank that it, too, would pull the plug on existing projects. (Mekay, 2005) The IMF and World Bank reflect a system of imposed budgeting that is arguably more detrimental than it is effective. Imposed budgets must be careful to provide some degree of flexibility and maneuverability if they are not to cause resentment and productivity problems. This is particularly the case if budgets are being set and imposed from external sources. On a local or company scale there are further problems with the use of imposed budgeting in trying to link financial failures with those responsible for them. It is important to be able to link levels of activity, the consumption of resources and the achievement of targets with the managers primarily responsible for making decisions about these issues (Henderson, p33). If budgets are imposed from above, it is potentially difficult to identify the source of budgetary failure. If managers are autonomous, any budgetary failure is attributed directly to them. This arguably generates stricter budgetary discipline, responsibility and better management. Unless you have the authority to control financial resources, you cannot effectively manage the services for which you are responsible (Henderson, p23). Conclusion Henderson (2003) argued that successful budgetary control resulted in; being able to account for money received and spent, making sure that the organisations financial policies are adhered to, ensuring that money is not wasted, and assisted managers to run, and develop, services or departments. There is no single correct way of managing budgets but from the evidence presented above it is arguable that imposing a set of budget controls is a more effective method of safeguarding company finances. Certainly this method guarantees that company polices are adhered to and money is accounted and, if employees and managers are motivated, imposed budgets do not necessarily detract from department development or cause money to be wasted. It is the assumption that motivation is sapped by reducing autonomy that is the major criticism of imposed budgeting but this is little proof that this is the case. Petrova (2004) writes in her article on motivation and autonomy that motivated employees may gain more from autonomy but autonomy in itself is not a guaranteed method of increasing employee motivation. In addition, Petrova concludes that the likely benefits for increasing autonomy for already motivated employees are unlikely to be returned in financial gains but rather in changes in leadership styles and organizational structure. Given that the foremost concern of budgeting is to secure the financial future of the company, rejecting imposed budgeting on account of its effect on organizational structure and leadership style arguably inappropriate. Bibliography Mekey, E (2005); MPs demand more budgetary control from IMF and World Bank; Finance Customwire, Public Agenda/All Africa Global Media Economist (2003); Guiding the pack; Vol 368, Issue 8334 Henderson, Prof. E (2003); Budgeting Part Two; Nurse Management Vol 10, Issue 2, p32-37 Van der Stede, W (2000); The relationship between two consequences of budgetary controls: budgetary slack creation and managerial short-term orientation; Accounting, Organisation Society; Vol 25, Issue 8, p609-623 Marginson, D.E.W (1999); Beyond the budgetary control system: towards a two-tiered process of management control; Management Accounting Research; Vol 10, Issue 3, p203-231 Benston, G.J (1963); Accounting Review; Vol 38, Issue 2; p347-354 Petrova, K (2004); Does Motivation trigger Autonomy, or Vice-Versa?; Econometrics of Labour Demand; VXXXVIII International Conference Applied Econometrics Association; www.aea.fed-eco.org 10/05/05 BBC News Website (2002); Nick Leeson and Barings Bank; Crimewatch Case Closed; www.bbe.co.uk/crime – 10/05/05

Cross-cultural Communication Essay

Language is playing nowadays one of the most important roles in cross-cultural communication, because it is a door into new culture and traditions. Cross-cultural communication arouses great interest compared with that of several decades ago. It means that the future success of a person mainly depends on his ability to use language and to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries. Nevertheless learning other languages doesn’t limit cross-cultural communication, language firstly suggests how cultural traditions and patterns are understood and how cultural values may affect the process of communication. (Managing Communication) Learning other languages is nowadays necessity, not only an option. Lots of spheres are influenced by cross-cultural communication involving, for example, health care providers, businesses, educational institutions, social service agencies and non-governmental organizations. Modern world recognizes and appreciates the role of language that is played in developing communication beyond cultural boundaries. Studying of language will help to achieve goals outside the native country. (Managing Communication) Understanding how to communicate cross-culturally will help to promote creating smoothly working project teams; responding to customers, clients, and markets; living and working in a culturally diverse world. Language is necessary in realizing that a person from other culture expresses his ideas and thoughts in completely different way. It is mentioned that â€Å"developing an awareness of why hearing words alone is not sufficient to discern meaning†. Language is important as well as learning of cultural customs and traditions of the country. In a modern swiftly changing world people and cultures are circulating and interacting as at a really dizzying speed. Those people who know how to use language and how to communicate effectively across cultures have a crucial advantage over others. (Managing Communication) Language in cross-cultural communication is aimed at preserving the traditions of ancient cultures as well as existing ones. For example, it is necessary to mention the kabary dialect based on â€Å"unhurried telling of ancestral proverbs, metaphors, and riddles, frequently in a dialogue using call and response†. Kabary is a form of traditional Malagasy oratory and it is seen that oral language may be the only way for some populations to preserve their cultural traditions. In this case language represents different manners of speech and increases literacy rate. Kabary is an important element in communication during ritual events. However, it is still used in regular, day-to-day talk. Although kabary is spoken solely in the Malagasy language, learning their language will help to understand their culture better and to break misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the cultural customs. (Harman 2002) Nevertheless there are also negative moments connected with language and cross-cultural communication. Although developing of international slang may make the process of cross-cultural communication easier, many countries prefer to stomp out foreign slang considering it â€Å"steals† originality of the native language. For example, Russian government thinks that introducing of international slang, especially English words, may result in serious corrupting their native language. However, the language in communication makes people understand better and introducing of international words may be considered a right action. The negative moment is that very often such international elements can replace native words or even may have no equivalents. For example, lexical interlopers are something new to Russian language: democratic politics, business, banking, holding, etc. and such words as broker, sponsor, chizburger, fax have no equal equivalents in Russian language. (Weir 2002) Language has to be preserved as it is the embodiment of human vision and language varieties are able to provide unparalleled insights into the process of cross-cultural communication. Language is human experience and perception exposed to be the main tool across cultures. (Thucus-Dubrow 2002) References Managing Communications. (1996, August). Peace Watch, 2, 5, 1-2. Thucus-Dubrow, Rebecca. (2002, April 25). World’s Languages Are Fast Disappearing. Retrieved September, 22, from http://www. globalpolicy. org/globaliz/cultural/2002/0425fast. htm Harman, Danna. (2002, May 9). In Kabary the Point is to Avoid the Point. Retrieved September, 22, from http://www. csmonitor. com/2002/0509/p01s04-woaf. html Weir, Fred. (2002, June 4). Russian Lawmakers Try to Stomp out Foreign Slang. Retrieved September, 22, from http://www. csmonitor. com/2002/0604/p14s01-lepr. html

Qualitative Article Review Essay

Purpose The purpose of this article is to show that there is a correlation between dropout rates and teen pregnancy, and to discuss ways to prevent teen pregnancy. The American Promise Alliance evaluated data on school districts that struggle with both poor school completion and high numbers of teen births. They identified 25 schools with the highest dropout and teen pregnancy rates. And they also evaluated school districts with high school completion rates and innovative pregnancy prevention programs to help students avoid early pregnancy and parenthood. The 25 persistently low achieving school districts account for twenty percent of all high school dropouts in the USA. Thirty percent of all teen girls that drop out of school cite pregnancy or parenthood as the reason. Thirty four percent young women who were teen mothers did not earn a diploma or GED. Less than two percent of teen mothers attained a college degree by age 30. School districts with higher school completion rates recognized the correlation between teen pregnancy and school dropout; they initiated programs to address these two high priorities. School districts collaborated with organizations receiving federally funded teen pregnancy prevention grants, such as US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of Adolescent Health’s (OAH), and evidenced based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program(TPP). Through their collaboration, grantees could use the funds in a variety of evidenced based models to meet the needs of their school, community and the age of the students being served. Description of Participants/Sample The participants in this study were all the teenagers in the USA. All USA students that attended public schools were a part of the data collection. School completion, pregnancy rate and dropout rate data was gathered from every public school in all the US school districts. Research Design/Data Analysis America’s Promise Alliance analyzed data from four reputable sources on teen pregnancy and dropout rates, and identified the school districts with the highest dropout rates. They also analyzed the data on teen birth rates or teen pregnancy rates from these school districts with high dropout rates. Method Diplomas Count 2011, Common Core of Data (CCD), VitalStats and Child Trend were the four sources of data information that was used to examine the number of dropouts and teen births within the 25 persistently lowest achieving school districts. Diplomas Count is a national report from Education Week and Editorial Projects in Education (EPE) Research Center, which provides graduation rates and graduation trends for all the public schools in the USA. Diplomas Count then identifies the 25 persistently lowest achieving school. Data on total school enrollment and enrollment by grade level was extracted from CCD. VitalStats and Child Trends provided data on teen birth rates and numbers. Results The data draws a parallel between high school dropouts and teen births. The data shows the school districts that struggle with poor school completion and high numbers of teen births and how various school districts are tackling these issues. Opportunities for Further Research The America’s Promise Alliance needs to collect more data for evidence that teen pregnancy caused dropouts, rather than just being correlated with dropout rate. After the 25 identified school districts with the high dropout and teen pregnancy rate implemented pregnancy prevention, the Alliance could check back in a year with these school districts to see if the dropout rate changed. Threats to Validity The four sources cited in this study are all very reputable sources that are cited often in the field of education. But although the America’s Promise Alliance spent a lot of discussion regarding the link between dropout rates and teen pregnancy, and suggesting that combating teen pregnancy could lower dropout rates, they ended the article by saying â€Å"readers should note that this data is meant only to draw a parallel between high school dropouts and teen births. No quantitative analysis to examine the statistical significance of the association between these two issues was performed and, therefore, causality should not be inferred.† They spent most of the article talking about things (teen pregnancy and dropout rates) that only made sense if there was causation, and then at the end of the article they retracted this conclusion from the readers. Insight and Criticism Teens getting pregnant while still in school are more likely to drop out of school, but the data in this article does not prove this, but I think it made a strange correlation between the two. There may be other factors that make pregnancy and dropping out more likely. Implications of Findings Thirty percent of teen girls who drop out of school cite pregnancy or parenthood as their reason. The connection between teen pregnancy or teen parenthood and educational attainment is strong. All interested parties in the prospect of these teen parents and their children need to collaborate and develop strategies to reduce the risk of them dropping out of school. References Shuger, L. (2012). Teen pregnancy and High School Dropout: What Communities are Doing to Address These Issues. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned pregnancy and America’s Promise Alliance. Retrieved November 2012, from www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/†¦/teen-preg-hs-dropout.pdf

Plastic Surgery Essay - 1788 Words

According to dictionary.com, beauty is defined as â€Å"the quality or aggregate of qualities in a person or thing that gives pleasure to the senses or pleasurably exalts the mind or spirit† (1). True beauty has been forgotten. All around the world people are paying thousands of dollars to have plastic surgery done to enhance this unreal beauty. Sadly, reality is that beauty is now seen as having the bigger breast, the perfect smile, zero body fat, and the perfectly chiseled nose. More and more people are turning to plastic surgery as a way to make them happy about their appearances and boost their self-esteem in a quick and easy process. But reality is, plastic surgery has major side effects. Plastic surgery causes more physical and emotional†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Thick red scars called hypertrophic scars may appear† after surgery (source 7 page 2). In breast augmentation, â€Å"the number one complaint is capsular contracture, a type of scarring around the breast implant itself. In many cases, it becomes painful because the scarring makes the breast feel hard (Stuart and Kotler 2). The most common risks in surgery is paralysis (Serano 2). The â€Å"anesthesia and sedation can cause paralysis† after the procedure is completed (source 7 pg. 1). Revision surgeries are more prevalent when someone undergoes nasal surgery. Facial surgeons mostly see â€Å"people coming for a revision when a nose is overdone and looks too pinched. It is usually because the first surgeon took out too much tissue† (Stuart and Kotler 2). â€Å"The thing many nasal surgeons see over and over is a healed nose with some grooves, depressions, and moguls that show up on the outside† (Stuart and Kotler 2). The inner complications associated with plastic surgery include excessive bleeding, nerve damage, and infections. â€Å"Bleeding is quite common within the first twenty four hours† after the procedure. (Plastic Surgery Guide 1). This bleeding can lead to more complications if the bleeding cannot be stopped fast enough. â€Å"Blood can pool and collect under the skin† causing bruises and swollen limbs (Plastic Surgery Guide 1). â€Å"After eyelift surgeries, excessive bleeding under the eyelidsShow MoreRelatedPlastic Surgery And Cosmetic Surgery1496 Words   |  6 PagesPlastic surgery has become an extremely popular trend throughout the past years of the American culture. There are many reasons why people get plastic surgery, however, our society is the first to judge an individual for getting a procedure done. The controversy regarding plastic surgery is extremely relevant and has received major attention through celebrities, television, and social media. However, ma ny individuals are unaware that there is a difference between both plastic surgery and cosmeticRead MoreCosmetic Surgery : Plastic Surgery1836 Words   |  8 PagesNorfolk, Va.† (Goleman, 1991). 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